Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia

Abayneh Agumass Amogne

doi:doi:10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Research Article |

| Peer-Reviewed

Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia

Abayneh Agumass Amogne^*

Published in Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science (Volume 14, Issue 5)

Received: 2 October 2025 Accepted: 14 October 2025 Published: 31 October 2025

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

NRW poses significant challenges for water utility institutions worldwide, impacting sustainable access to potable water and the financial viability of utility operations. This issue is particularly severe for water utilities in developing countries, like Ethiopia. This research aimed to examine NRW and identify its root causes specifically for the Debre Markos Water Utility. Data collection involved a desk review, field observations, and semi-structured key-informant interviews, which included both open and closed-ended questions. The research findings indicated that the average NRW was estimated at 35.94%. The impact assessment revealed that NRW had a significant negative effect on both the water utility and its customers. The study found that leakage and its triggers, theft, lack of NRW components awareness, infrastructure development, poor data handling practices, a low number of gate valves, great distances from master control points, inaccurate water meters, and failure to utilize the latest water meter technology were the main root causes of NRW. Therefore, the water utility should have an awareness of NRW components and develop appropriate reduction strategies. Additionally, the utility should adopt the latest technologies in water supply components and implement robust scientific investigation and monitoring mechanisms, supported by a legal framework, to recover the revenue lost.

Published in	Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science (Volume 14, Issue 5)
DOI	10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
Page(s)	147-162
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Unbilled Authorized Consumption, Leakage, NRW Components, NRW Impacts, Non-Revenue Water, NRW Root Causes, Commercial Losses

References

[1]	Abate B (2016) Assessment of Water Supply and Demand of Boditi Town. Civ Environ Res. 8(11): 18-28.
[2]	Abebaw M (2015) Assessment of Water Loss in Water Supply Networks.
[3]	Abueltayef H, Abualhin K, Alastal K (2023) Enabled geographic information system technology toward non-revenue water reduction. Desalin Water Treat 292: 233–246. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2023.29522
[4]	AbuEltayef H, Alastal K, AbuAlhin K (2023) A new approach to assess non-revenue water and intervention prioritization in water distribution zones by using Geographic Information System technology. Desalin Water Treat 313: 216–226. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2023.29938
[5]	Adem B, Mitthan B, Kansal L (2024) Complexities of the urban drinking water systems in Ethiopia and possible interventions for sustainability. Environ Dev Sustain 26, 4629–4659 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02901-7
[6]	Adzrin R, Ahmad R, Samsudin S, Azmi NA (2025) Addressing non-revenue water challenges: a pathway towards sustainable development goal (SDG). 5: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.47172/2965-730X.SDGsReview.v5.n01.pe02798
[7]	Africa IS (2024) NON-REVENUE WATER New ‘one-stop-shop’ to improve non-revenue water. 10–12. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-waterb-v23-n6-a2
[8]	Ahmed Z (2024a) Minimizing Unaccounted-for Water (UFW). 1-15. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3940816/v1
[9]	Ahmed ZY (2024b) Reducing Non-Revenue Water. 6: 23–29. https://doi.org/10.37394/232026.2024.6.3
[10]	Al-washali T, Sharma S, Kennedy M (2016) Methods of assessment of water losses in water supply systems: a review. Water Resour Manag 30: 4985–5001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-016-1503-7
[11]	Amogne AA (2025) Evaluating the performance of the existing water supply system in Dangila. 20: 239–255. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2025.007
[12]	Arregui F, Jr EC, Cobacho R, García-serra J (2005) Key Factors affecting Water Meter Accuracy. Proc. Leakage: 1–11.
[13]	Asgedom DB (2014) Assessing causes and challenges of urban water supply: the case of Mekelle city. Int J Sci Res 3(7): 2319–7064.
[14]	Baird A, Walters R, White R (2020) Water theft maleficence in Australia. Int J Crime, Justice Soc Democr 9: 83–97. https://doi.org/10.5204/IJCJSD.V10I1.1604
[15]	Bank AD (2010a) _e Issues and Challenges of Reducing Non-Revenue Water. 51.
[16]	Beker BA, Kansal ML (2024) Complexities of the urban drinking water systems in Ethiopia and possible interventions for sustainability. Environ Dev Sustain 26(2): 4629–4659.
[17]	Best DOF, Non-revenue PIN (2013) Documentation of best practices in non-revenue water management in selected mediterranean countries algeria, israel, jordan & morocco February 2013.
[18]	Bhagat SK, Tiyasha, Welde W, et al (2019) Evaluating physical and fiscal water leakage in water distribution system. Water (Switzerland) 11(10): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102091
[19]	Burn S (2014) Pipe leakage – future challenges.
[20]	Chabe P (2018) Management of non-revenue water: a case study of the water supply in Lusaka, Zambia. The University of Zambia.
[21]	Chini CM, Stillwell AS (2018) The State of U.S. Urban Water: Data and the Energy-Water Nexus. Water Resour Res 54(3): 1796–1811. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR022265
[22]	Consultant P, Associates MF (2003) Non revenue water - international best practice for assessment, monitoring and control Malcolm Farley Paper presented to 12 th Annual CWWA Water, Wastewater & Solid Waste Conference. 1–18.
[23]	CSA (1994) Summary and statistical report of the 2007 population and housing census: population size by age and sex. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Population Census Commission.
[24]	CSA (2008) Summary and statistical report of the 2007 population and housing census: population size by age and sex. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Population Census Commission.
[25]	Dang V, Defo C, Fabrice P, Efon B. and Ondigui, J (2024) Analysis of water losses in seven small and medium-sized water distribution networks in the south region of Cameroon (Central Africa).Water Practice & Technology, 19(12): 4682–4698. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2024.248
[26]	Dinku MA (2007) Assessment of water loss in water supply network a case of Debre Markos town.
[27]	Farah E (2024) Water Leak Detection: A Comprehensive Review of Methods, Challenges, and Future Directions. 16(20): 2975. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202975
[28]	Farley M, Wyeth G, Ghazali ZBM, Istandar A, Singh S, Dijk N, Raksakulthai V and Kirkwood E (2008) The manager’s non-revenue water handbook. A Guid to Underst water losses 110.
[29]	Farok GMG (2016) Non-revenue water (NRW) is a challenge for global water supply system management: A case study of Dhaka water supply system management. J Mech Eng 46(1): 28–35. https://doi.org/10.3329/jme.v46i1.32520
[30]	Farouk AM, Rahman RA, Romali NS (2023) Non-revenue water reduction strategies: a systematic review. Smart Sustain Built Environ 12(1): 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1108/SASBE-04-2021-0071
[31]	Ferrante M, Rogers D, Mugabi J, Casinini F (2023) Water Supply : A Laboratory Investigation of Remedial. Water Resour Manag 37(10): 3921–3933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-023-03532-x
[32]	Finance S, Finance USP (2023) Lost Water : Challenges And Opportunities.
[33]	Ismail Z, Puad WFWA (2006) Non-Revenue Water Losses : A Case Study. 4(2): 113–117. https://doi.org/10.3233/AJW-2007-4_2_18
[34]	Josy K, Nono N, Mvongo VD (2024) Assessment of non-revenue water in the urban water distribution system network in Cameroon (Central Africa). 24(5): 1755–1767. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2024.071
[35]	Kanakoudis V, Tsitsifli S, Papadopoulou A, et al (2017) Water resources vulnerability assessment in the Adriatic Sea region: the case of Corfu Island. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(25): 20173–20186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9732-8
[36]	Karadeniz S, Ustaoğlu F (2024) Toxicological risk assessment using spring water quality indices in plateaus of Giresun Province / Türkiye : a holistic hydrogeochemical data analysis. Environ Geochem Health 46(8): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-024-02054-8
[37]	Karema M, Tole K, Mvurya M (2025) Optimizing Non Revenue Water Management: A comprehensive Literature Review. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202504.1210.v1
[38]	Kingdom B, Liemberger R, Marin P (2006) The challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in developing countries: A look at performance-based service contracting. Water Supply Sanit Sect Board Discuss Pap Ser 1–52.
[39]	Klosok-Bazan I, Boguniewicz-Zablocka J, Suda A, et al (2021) Assessment of leakage management in small water supplies using performance indicators. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(30): 41181–41190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13575-5
[40]	Liemberger R, Wyatt A (2019a) Quantifying the global non-revenue water problem. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 19(3): 831–837. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2018.129
[41]	Makaya E (2016) Water loss management strategies for developing countries: Understanding the dynamics of water leakages. Universitätsbibliothek Kassel.
[42]	Maraheb Saqer Al-Ali (2023) Non-Revenue Water : Methodological Comparative Assessment. Khar.
[43]	Mckenzie RS, Wegelin W (2009) Implementation of pressure management in municipal water supply systems r s Mckenzie & W Wegelin 20: 1–18.
[44]	Mekonnen MM, Hoekstra AY (2016) Sustainability: Four billion people facing severe water scarcity. Sci Adv 2(2): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323
[45]	Mubvaruri F, Hoko Z, Mhizha A, Gumindoga W (2022) Investigating trends and components of non-revenue water for Glendale, Zimbabwe. Phys Chem Earth, Parts A/B/C 126: 103145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103145
[46]	Mutikanga HE, Sharma SK, Vairavamoorthy K (2011) Assessment of apparent losses in urban water systems. Water Environ J 25(3): 327–335. https://doi.org/10.111/j.1747-6593.2010.00225.x
[47]	Ncube M, Sibanda F, Kagoda P (2022) Water Meter Performance in South Africa.
[48]	Ngcobo N (2021) An Investigation of Water Meter Tampering and Illegal Pipping Connections : Case Study of Folweni, KwaZulu-Ntal. 18: 207–225.
[49]	Ociepa E (2021) Analysis and assessment of water losses reduction effectiveness using examples of selected water distribution systems. Desalin Water Treat 211: 196–209. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26594
[50]	Ong C, Tortajada C, Arora O (2023) Water Losses. 39–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8677-2_5
[51]	Onyango TA, Nyamai DO, Owuor JB (2022) Environmental implications of water as a natural resource based business: The case of non-revenue water in Kisumu City, Kenya. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJVTE2022.0310
[52]	Ore DIN (2018) Reduce Energy Consumption and Background Leakage.
[53]	Paper W, Effective H, Water AN, Programs R (2014) The Drivers of Non-Revenue Water How Effective Are Non-Revenue Water Reduction Programs ?
[54]	Pathirane A, Kazama S, Takizawa S (2024) Heliyon Dynamic analysis of non-revenue water in district metered areas under varying water consumption conditions owing to COVID-19. Heliyon 10: e23516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23516
[55]	Perera BAKS, Mallawaarachchi H, Jayasanka KS, Rathnayake RRPN (2018) A Water Management System for Reducing Non-Revenue Water in Potable Water Lines : The Case of Sri Lanka.
[56]	Rizvi SAR, Saba I (2017) Developments in Islamic finance : challenges and initiatives.
[57]	Sadeghioon AM, Metje N, Chapman DN, Anthony CJ (2014) SmartPipes: Smart wireless sensor networks for leak detection in water pipelines. J Sens Actuator Networks 3: 64–78. https://doi.org/10.3390/jsan3010064
[58]	Santos E (2024) Beyond Leakage: Non-Revenue Water Loss and Economic Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040194
[59]	Sarsour A, Nagabhatla N (2022) Options and Strategies for Planning Water and Climate Security in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Water (Switzerland) 14: https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213418
[60]	Science W, Liemberger R, Gmbh P (2017) Developing a non-revenue water reduction strategy : planning and implementing the strategy Developing a Non-Revenue Water Reduction Strategy Part 2 : Planning and Implementing the Strategy. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2005.0006
[61]	Sekyere CKK, Davis F, Fiagbe YAK, Amoo RNG (2020) Techno-Economic Assessment of Non-Revenue Water: A Case Study at AER, GWCL. J Water Resour Prot 12: 480–494. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2020.126029
[62]	Shanthini R, Sowmiya Y, Swetha M, et al (2023) System for Monitoring and Identifying theft from Domestic Water Supplies. In: E3S Web of Conferences. pp 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202339902006
[63]	Singh M, Mittal AK, Upadhyay V (2014) Efficient water utilities: Use of performance indicator system and data envelopment analysis. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 14(5): 787–794. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.036
[64]	Stankovich M, Hasanbeigi A, Neftenov N (2020) Use of 4IR technologies in water and sanitation in Latin America and the Caribbean. https://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0002343
[65]	Systems S (2020) A Survey of Pressure Control Approaches in Water Supply Systems. Water, 12(6): 1732. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061732
[66]	Tabesh M, Roozbahani A, Roghani B, et al (2018) Risk Assessment of Factors Influencing Non-Revenue Water Using Bayesian Networks and Fuzzy Logic. Water Resour Manag 32(11): 3647–3670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-018-2011-8
[67]	Tsakiris G, Vangelis H, Tigkas D, Stathaki A, Sofotasios D, Toprak S, Cem Koç A, Güngör M, Kaya M, De Angelis E, Iacovou G and Charalambous B (2011) Urban water distribution systems : Preventive maintenance Water Utility Journal 1: 41–48.
[68]	USAID A& (2015) Africa Non-Revenue Water Program Synthesis Report.
[69]	van den Berg C (2015) Drivers of non-revenue water: A cross-national analysis. Util policy 36: 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2015.07.005
[70]	Van Zyl Je, Clayton CRI (2007) The effect of pressure on leakage in water distribution systems. In: Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Water Management 2(160). pp 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1680/wama.2007.160.2.109
[71]	Wyatt AS, Press RTI (2010) Non-Revenue Water : Financial Model for Optimal Management in Developing Countries. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2010.mr.0018.1006
[72]	Yehia Z (2024) Non-revenue Water Reduction. Qeios 1–12. https://doi.org/10.32388/up5m54.3
[73]	Yekti MI, Norken IN, Putu N, Wentiari R (2019) Non-Revenue Water (NRW) and its handling for a drinking water supply system in Kedewatan zone Gianyar Bali. 4(276): p. 04004. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201927604004
[74]	YILKAL BF (2024) Evaluating the impact of network expansion on hydraulic performance of water supply distribution system: a case study of Debre Markos town, Ethiopis.
[75]	THINGsLOG,”How to improve the water balance by introducing non-revenue waters monitoring system? ”available from: https://thingslog.com/blog/2021/05/03/ (Accessed 14 May, 2025).

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Amogne, A. A. (2025). Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia. Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science, 14(5), 147-162. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Amogne, A. A. Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia. J. Water Resour. Ocean Sci. 2025, 14(5), 147-162. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Amogne AA. Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia. J Water Resour Ocean Sci. 2025;14(5):147-162. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13,
  author = {Abayneh Agumass Amogne},
  title = {Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia
},
  journal = {Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {147-162},
  doi = {10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.wros.20251405.13},
  abstract = {NRW poses significant challenges for water utility institutions worldwide, impacting sustainable access to potable water and the financial viability of utility operations. This issue is particularly severe for water utilities in developing countries, like Ethiopia. This research aimed to examine NRW and identify its root causes specifically for the Debre Markos Water Utility. Data collection involved a desk review, field observations, and semi-structured key-informant interviews, which included both open and closed-ended questions. The research findings indicated that the average NRW was estimated at 35.94%. The impact assessment revealed that NRW had a significant negative effect on both the water utility and its customers. The study found that leakage and its triggers, theft, lack of NRW components awareness, infrastructure development, poor data handling practices, a low number of gate valves, great distances from master control points, inaccurate water meters, and failure to utilize the latest water meter technology were the main root causes of NRW. Therefore, the water utility should have an awareness of NRW components and develop appropriate reduction strategies. Additionally, the utility should adopt the latest technologies in water supply components and implement robust scientific investigation and monitoring mechanisms, supported by a legal framework, to recover the revenue lost.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia

AU  - Abayneh Agumass Amogne
Y1  - 2025/10/31
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
T2  - Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
JF  - Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
JO  - Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
SP  - 147
EP  - 162
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2328-7993
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
AB  - NRW poses significant challenges for water utility institutions worldwide, impacting sustainable access to potable water and the financial viability of utility operations. This issue is particularly severe for water utilities in developing countries, like Ethiopia. This research aimed to examine NRW and identify its root causes specifically for the Debre Markos Water Utility. Data collection involved a desk review, field observations, and semi-structured key-informant interviews, which included both open and closed-ended questions. The research findings indicated that the average NRW was estimated at 35.94%. The impact assessment revealed that NRW had a significant negative effect on both the water utility and its customers. The study found that leakage and its triggers, theft, lack of NRW components awareness, infrastructure development, poor data handling practices, a low number of gate valves, great distances from master control points, inaccurate water meters, and failure to utilize the latest water meter technology were the main root causes of NRW. Therefore, the water utility should have an awareness of NRW components and develop appropriate reduction strategies. Additionally, the utility should adopt the latest technologies in water supply components and implement robust scientific investigation and monitoring mechanisms, supported by a legal framework, to recover the revenue lost.

VL  - 14
IS  - 5
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Abayneh Agumass Amogne

Debre Markos Institute of Technology, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0004-3699-2731

Download PDF

Submit an Article

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Amogne, A. A. (2025). Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia. Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science, 14(5), 147-162. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Amogne, A. A. Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia. J. Water Resour. Ocean Sci. 2025, 14(5), 147-162. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Amogne AA. Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia. J Water Resour Ocean Sci. 2025;14(5):147-162. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13,
  author = {Abayneh Agumass Amogne},
  title = {Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia
},
  journal = {Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {147-162},
  doi = {10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.wros.20251405.13},
  abstract = {NRW poses significant challenges for water utility institutions worldwide, impacting sustainable access to potable water and the financial viability of utility operations. This issue is particularly severe for water utilities in developing countries, like Ethiopia. This research aimed to examine NRW and identify its root causes specifically for the Debre Markos Water Utility. Data collection involved a desk review, field observations, and semi-structured key-informant interviews, which included both open and closed-ended questions. The research findings indicated that the average NRW was estimated at 35.94%. The impact assessment revealed that NRW had a significant negative effect on both the water utility and its customers. The study found that leakage and its triggers, theft, lack of NRW components awareness, infrastructure development, poor data handling practices, a low number of gate valves, great distances from master control points, inaccurate water meters, and failure to utilize the latest water meter technology were the main root causes of NRW. Therefore, the water utility should have an awareness of NRW components and develop appropriate reduction strategies. Additionally, the utility should adopt the latest technologies in water supply components and implement robust scientific investigation and monitoring mechanisms, supported by a legal framework, to recover the revenue lost.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Examining Non-Revenue Water and Identifying Its Root Causes in Debre Markos Town, Ethiopia

AU  - Abayneh Agumass Amogne
Y1  - 2025/10/31
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
T2  - Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
JF  - Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
JO  - Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
SP  - 147
EP  - 162
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2328-7993
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wros.20251405.13
AB  - NRW poses significant challenges for water utility institutions worldwide, impacting sustainable access to potable water and the financial viability of utility operations. This issue is particularly severe for water utilities in developing countries, like Ethiopia. This research aimed to examine NRW and identify its root causes specifically for the Debre Markos Water Utility. Data collection involved a desk review, field observations, and semi-structured key-informant interviews, which included both open and closed-ended questions. The research findings indicated that the average NRW was estimated at 35.94%. The impact assessment revealed that NRW had a significant negative effect on both the water utility and its customers. The study found that leakage and its triggers, theft, lack of NRW components awareness, infrastructure development, poor data handling practices, a low number of gate valves, great distances from master control points, inaccurate water meters, and failure to utilize the latest water meter technology were the main root causes of NRW. Therefore, the water utility should have an awareness of NRW components and develop appropriate reduction strategies. Additionally, the utility should adopt the latest technologies in water supply components and implement robust scientific investigation and monitoring mechanisms, supported by a legal framework, to recover the revenue lost.

VL  - 14
IS  - 5
ER  -

Copy | Download